Effective Study Skills Essay

Study is the devotion of time and attention to acquiring knowledge on an academic subject and the skills are the ability and capacity acquired through deliberate systematic and sustained effort. For some students the motivation and ability to study comes easily. However for those students for whom it does not it is necessary to develop effective study skills. The aims is to provide the sole foundation of a sound education. These are necessary for the student to realise their full potential and acquire good grades. Without these skills the student would not be aware of their ability to learn in the best way and to maximise this. She states: 1) It is essential to be rested (sleep affects performance) and to sit comfortably. A change of scenery stimulates the brain and helps creative thinking. 2) To be hydrated, drinking water helps the electrical connections of the brain. 3) To be unstressed. When stressed the brain only concentrates on ‘escape’ not on tasks in hand. 4) To enjoy.  5) To learn to see something several times, little and often works better than trying to understand something in one sitting. Cottrell points out that effective study skills are needed to facilitate time management and to meet deadlines. She states spare time must be used effectively to give relaxation time, to rest and enjoy oneself as well as independent study time. According to Cottrell it is essential to learn from one’s own mistakes and feedback which give a way to improve performance and above all else, not to give up. Time management is essential, not giving excessive time to favoured topics rather than those necessary. It is essential to stay on target, stay motivated and not to let things get on top of you, to stay in control and maintain the correct direction of the studies. General tips are to identify the task in hand and work out exactly what is being asked for, setting clear goals and staying focused towards them. To develop the meaning of the task or how things work makes taking in material, reading and retaining the subject matter easier. To find links with the wider world such as the internet and journals helps. Working with others can also help by sharing ideas and getting mutual help. Finally to look for reasonable

Freewill vs Predistnation in Dr Faustus Essay

Dr Faustus is a german scholar who shuts himself off from human normal life to achieve his aspirations, he is not only willing to to sell his soul to the devil but also to be the devil himself † to be a spirit in form and in substance†,Dr Faustus is born to an ordinary family in germany in a small town called Rhode , he was educated at wittenberg a famous German university and obtained a degree in theology. Faustus is a shakeasperian character he isn’t rich or a king but he is a man of hight social rank,he has a flaw in his character,the hero (dr Faustus) has a problem in his character which leads to his downfall. Faustus is a great scientist who has a great knowledge,he has an extreme pride and arrogance, he is not happy with the level of knowledge and science that he reaches, he wants to reach a level that fit with his think,he wants to control the earth , to gaine power and full control,to transcend human life Oh what a world of profit and delight† Of power,of honour,of ominopotance By comparing himself with a â€Å"studious artizan,† Faustus hopes to gain all worldly pleasures and goods as the fruits of scholarly work. He does not understand,everything must be under his command All of these things have left him unsatisfied, so now he turns to magic to black magic Faustus realizes that by practicing the dark arts, he will have extreme power in the world. This is the turning point in his transition from scholar to magician. Faustus conjured a demon, Mephistophilis, ordering him to go to Lucifer with the offer of Faustus’s soul in return for twenty-four years of power and of pleasure with Mephistopheles as servant to him, Before the time comes to sign the contract, Faustus has doupts, but he puts them aside and signs away his soul, writing with his own blood. Faustus begins his years filled with sinful nature. He feeds greedly on the art of awakening the dead,he realizes his mistake in believing power will bring him happiness,at the end of his 24 years Faustus is filled with fears and he becomes regretful for his past action,yet this comes too late when his fellow scholars find his body torns in pieces and his soul carried to hell. There is a failure of Christianity at the end of the drama because Faustus fails o repent. He cries out but no one is ready to listen . The ultimate lesson is that if we try to change our label from â€Å"Human being† into â€Å"God†, ultimate truth will be a punishment and that is terrible damnation,The end of the Faustus is really horrible,Faustus doubts in god’s existence is the worst thing. Eternal damnation is a result of suspicion in God. Indeed, Faustus is a tragic common man.

Strict Censorship Policies of Google Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Strict Censorship Policies of Google - Case Study Example The world’s largest search engine then announced redirecting to an uncensored version located in Hong Kong in the hopes of circumventing mainland China’s laws which only heightened Chinese officials’ ire. Furthermore, regardless of Google’s act of leaving China, it remained to be a far competitor from the Haidu, China’s most popular search engine. In the same vein, Google did not lose as much revenue as the Chinese market represented only a small fraction of what comprised the company (Heft and Barboza). As reported by the prevalently government lenient news agency, Xinhua, the government sees that â€Å"regulation on the Internet is a sovereign issue† and that Google has no right to attempt or to impose its own standard on what the government should and should not censor (Na, Yunlu, and Hao, par. 5). There seems to be a great disparity between the conception of human rights as viewed in a Western concept especially among Americans and the en cumbrance of Chinese law which majority of its citizens tend to dismiss. To reiterate, it is difficult to point out people’s rights when they are in fact unaware that such rights do exist.The world’s largest search engine then announced redirecting to an uncensored version located in Hong Kong in the hopes of circumventing mainland China’s laws which only heightened Chinese officials’ ire. Furthermore, regardless of Google’s act of leaving China, it remained to be a far competitor from the Haidu, China’s most popular search engine. In the same vein, Google did not lose as much revenue as the Chinese market represented only a small fraction of what comprised the company (Heft and Barboza). As reported by the prevalently government lenient news agency, Xinhua, the government sees that â€Å"regulation on the Internet is a sovereign issue† and that Google has no right to attempt or to impose its own standard on what the government should and should not censor (Na, Yunlu, and Hao, par. 5). There seems to be a great disparity between the conception of human rights as viewed in a Western concept especially among Americans and, the encumbrance of Chinese law which majority of its citizens tend to dismiss. To reiterate, it is difficult to point out people’s rights when they are in fact unaware that such rights do exist. A country’s business climate must be understood by a business professional in order to have a greater perspective on how to conduct one’s self and how to carry out one’s business in a certain location. This would be applicable on specific matters as people and cultures are diverse. More than this, laws are also an integral part that must be kept in mind to avoid complications that could lead to lawsuits and legal dilemmas. The instant case presents us with two sides of an argument where a company’s very own principle goes against a country’s law and regulations. What may be a common practice in one country may be absolutely prohibited in another and where a company cannot make amends with this fact, then there is inevitably the meandering situation where things are bound not to work out.  

Write in your own words about the life of saint Bernadette Assignment

Write in your own words about the life of saint Bernadette - Assignment Example They had no means of survival and the family of six had to live in one room and eat any food that came their way. She lived in poor health during her early life and was struck by illnesses such as asthma, tuberculosis and had survived cholera, and these attacks made her be cut off from the religious lives. One day in 1858 when she was sent to fetch firewood with her sister and a friend, she met a beautiful lady who smiled at her and made the sign of a rosary. Bernadette knelt and took her rosary and started praying. Mary mother of God had appeared to her as a beautiful lady, and she also appeared seventeen other times after this day and had a conversation with her. She told Bernadette that sinners should repent their sins and be accepted back by God and also that a church be built. When she told people about her vision, many did not believe her, and she had to suffer a lot before people could believe her (Paulos, 2003). One day our lady to dig a hole where water sprung out, began to flow out and began growing bigger and bigger. When people begun using this water, miracles happened. Bernadette w as very humble, and when she grew older she became a nun. She got too much attention, which she dint like and went to a school run by catholic sisters where she learnt to read and write. She spent the rest of her life working as a helper in the infirmary, a job she liked a lot. She died at the age of 35 in 1879 and her body put to rest the Saint Gildard Convent (Paulos,

Stressors and Stress Management Mechanisms among First-Year School Dissertation

Stressors and Stress Management Mechanisms among First-Year School Principals - Dissertation Example Stressors and Stress Management Mechanisms among First-Year School Principals Thus, this period needs to be handled with a lot of care and precaution. Indeed, Lindley agrees, â€Å"professional training materials are needed to help educators who are preparing for administrative positions and first-year principals who are struggling to survive the tribulations of the â€Å"rookie† principal† (Lindley xi). The best way to do this is to investigate the various causes of stress among first year principals so that best way forward can be proposed to assist school administrators going through the same challenges. Since the issues of stress among first year school administrators is wide and multivariate, literature review is given a fivefold approach. First, literature regarding burnout theory is investigated. Secondly, literature review is done on stressors among first year principals. Thirdly, works regarding impact of stress experienced by school administrators is reviewed. Finally, literature work on authors who have focused on coping mechanisms is evaluated. Burnout can occur among professionals dealing with service to people. According to Dworkin burnout occurs when overstressed individuals feel emotionally drained by their work environment, feel that their activities result in no benefit to those they had intended to help or to themselves, and come to blame their clients, patients, or students for failing to improve, get better, or learn, and in turn, for the professional’s loss of feelings of accomplishment.... Although there are different burnout models, Maslach burnout theory as proposed by Maslach and Jackson is used. The Maslach burnout inventory (MBI) argues that burnout syndrome comprises of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a feeling of reduced personal accomplishment. The burnout theory has mostly been used to assess the stress levels among professionals who do â€Å"people work.† Most of the earlier works utilizing burnout theory investigated causes of stress and stress levels among professionals in nursing and religious institutions. However, recent works investigating stress among school administrators have also used this theory with great levels of success. Indeed, â€Å"a number of studies have now reported on the reliability and validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory in a variety of cultures and among a variety of different professional groups† (Greer and Moberg 180). Whereas, burnout theory has been used for quite some time in investigating stresso rs among school principals, â€Å"research on burnout has produced unanswered questions for school administrators† (Ward 46). It therefore becomes important to dig exhaustively in this subject in order to come up with viable solutions to the stress factors. Many authors have applied the MBI in their work on stress among school administrators. Among them was Ward from the University of Texas at San Antonio. Ward investigated the impact of personal and organizational factors on school administrators. Though his study was wide, one of the issues he investigated was the correlation between the levels of burnout and years of experience of school administrators. He used the MBI and found out that the first years of school administration are the most stressful. Vandenberghe and Huberman explored the

Evaluation of a Current Child Health Issue Essay

Evaluation of a Current Child Health Issue - Essay Example Depression, another emotional disorder, is also on the rise with young people with at least 2 per cent of children under 12 and 5 per cent of teenagers suffering from depression (op.cit.). Depression is associated with â€Å"feelings of extreme sadness† (NHS, 2010, para.6) which not only last for long periods of time, but is also recurrent and may further develop into suicidal tendencies (ibid). Brent and Birmaher (2002) noted that depression in both children and adolescents is not always demonstrated by sadness, but can take the form of irritability, boredom and the inability to find pleasure. Younger adolescents may show more anxiety-related symptoms, clinging behaviours, unexplained fears and physical symptoms, while older adolescents may experience a greater loss of interest and pleasure and also have more morbid thinking (Kalb & Raymond, 2003; Mondimore, 2002). Lewinsohn et al. (1998) found that nearly 89% of depressed adolescents reported disturbances in sleep. With youn ger children in the early childhood stage, depression is manifested by â€Å"masked† symptoms such as a complaint of stomach ache or aggression (Carlson & Cantwell, 1980; Hazel, 2002; Luby et al., 2003). These symptoms are fairly common in children, so it is not usually identified as a depressive symptom. However, when young children have these symptoms and are also seen to be irritable, bored or not finding pleasure, especially in play which is inherently fun, then they may present symptoms of early childhood depression (Brent and Birmaher, 2002). The difficulty with reaching a clear diagnosis of depression at this stage is that young children are perceived to be developmentally too immature to experience the effects of such a heavy emotion (Stalets & Luby, 2006). On the other hand, studies have shown that in fact children at this stage are far more emotionally sophisticated than they are given credit for (Denham et al., 2002; Denham et al., 2003; Saarni, 2000; Lewis et al., 1992; Lewis et al., 1989). Depression in very young children results in experiencing complicated emotions such as guilt and shame (Luby et al., 2009) and as younger children â€Å"mask† their depression it can be harder to identify a need early on. Some children who are depressed may actually avidly participate in activities with others such as singing and dancing and even exaggerate their actions. This makes diagnosis even harder and early intervention difficult. Depression can develop from a combination of different factors (risk factors) such as genetics, physiological, environmental and socio-economic factors such as parent’s unemployment , sickness and large families in small houses, bullying of peers or abuse from adults (Northen, 2004). If these risk factors are already present in the child’s life then significant life changes such as a death of a significant other, parental divorce and other tragedies will greatly increase the likelihood of childhood de pression. One particularly important factor that affects a child’s likelihood of developing depression is the quality of their relationship with their family. Brofenbrenner’s Ecological model (1979) explains that family is part of the child’s microsystem and the primary providers of the child’

Romania Risk Assessment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words - 1

Romania Risk Assessment - Assignment Example Hazards identified at the level if agency and department and also those in the process were assessed in the process of risk assessment. These hazards were categorized into four groups that included Transportation, Civil, Technological and Natural. In the second stage, entails the reflection of the total risks presented by the hazard that is identified. At this point, the group comes together to undertake the process of risk assessment in Romania. During the period of assessment, some of the two issues that are key and need to be considered are; the likelihood assessment and the potential impact examination. The criteria of the likelihood and impact are to be used as the basis for decision making. The system of classification is based on a risk assessment guide in the major management of emergency (DEHLG, 2010). In determining the types of risk that exists it is wise to show the relative lively hood of the risk occurrence against its impact The risk of flooding that is explained by the Romanian Academy Geography Institution extended the distribution site of the sites of Seveso; this provided an opportunity for these areas to be categorized as areas that are prone to Natech event. In Romania, areas that are categorized as flood risk occupy a larger surface hence increasing the probability of the occurrence of Natech with the major cause flooding. The largest area of the site of Seveso that could be affected by the floods is located in the central and western part of Romania. Sites of Seveso can also be found in Mures, Hunedoara and Alba counties. However, other counties in Romania which do not have the Seveso Sites and have a high risk of being affected by the floods are majorly at the west and they include Olt-South, Caransebes-South-West, Giurgiu, and Caras (European Environment Agency, 2010). The year 2003 was exceptional when view from a climatic point. Most of the part of

Human Resources - Compare and Contrast Interview Paper Essay

Human Resources - Compare and Contrast Interview Paper - Essay Example The individuals have been chosen for the study based on the fact that they have been involved in the core human resource activities for a significant number of years and have gained substantial knowledge and expertise on the subject too. The topic chosen for the study is compensation and the problems that employees face with regards to the same. The interview questions are prepared with the aim to bring forth the opinion of the two managers with regards to the effectiveness of the compensation policies in their organizations in terms of employee and organizational performance. The questionnaire is designed to help the two organizations make analysis of their respective human resource practices. Also the compensation package of employees is perceived as the value organization assign to their employees. An analysis of the same would reveal the employees’ worth in the organization as valuable assets. Comparison and Contrast of Interviews Various factors came forth with regards to the compensation structures of the two organizations and how satisfied were the employees with the compensation structure and policies of the organization.... Also considering the improvements in then labor markets, organizations have been driven towards the upliftment of the salaries of employees. Employers failing to do so confront with various human resource problems, such as dissatisfied and de-motivated employees, employees’ resistance towards work and their jobs. From the responses that follow, it is apparent that the former organization considers the industrial standards at the prevailing time before setting the salaries of employees. However, the latter sets its salary independent of the industry standards. The responses demonstrate that the former organization would face fewer problems in attracting and retaining human resource in comparison to the latter. With the upward inflationary pressures in most nations and rapid technological advancement organizations have been increasingly confronting with the problem of upward revision of the basic salaries of employees in terms of their dearness allowances. In such a condition or ganizations not considering the industrial standards would be faced with the problem of high employee attrition rates. Employees would be more tempted towards organizations offering higher salaries as salaries are the prerequisites of attracting and retaining talents in organizations. With the intense competition existing in the market, the compensation packages are the only and most important alternative left with the companies to motivate employees and attract them from the labor market. The increment system in the former organizations is found to be better and profound in comparison to the latter. Employees remain concerned about their career

Comparing and Contrasting Essay Example for Free

Comparing and Contrasting Essay Comparing and Contrasting The man with the twisted lip with Front  There are many similarities and differences in both Front and Twisted lip, but the most apparent relation between the two stories is the keeping up appearances (or keeping down appearances in the case of Twisted lip) theme, meaning they are about someone or something trying to conceal the truth or simply the truth isnt so obvious in the case of Front, the other less prevailing similarities/differences will be analysed later on in the essay. The beginning of both stories differ quite strongly, Front begins with a narrator describing her experiences of seeing something that she would compare to as one of the seven wonders of the world and there some definite references to class Five streets down the comma after the word down brings emphasis towards it and sets the impression that the narrator feels (or later on in the story, felt) that she is in a sense not worthy, or in awe with her surroundings, as the story shows that she is quite concerned about class, and the economic standings of her and her family as this will be pointed out later on in the essay, and becomes quite obvious when reading the story. The Writer also gives the reader the impression that this girl thinks very highly of this place, and although she imagines it to be so far above the town she feels she is not good enough, I wanted to be forced to leave, the writer portrays the girl to be intimidated by this site she is seeing as it reads that she did not mention the crescent to anyone afterwards as if I had been trespassing, and needed to conceal the fact with all of these displays of almost worshipfulness and the fact that she thought back on it with great nostalgia the impression the writer has given the crescent would be hard to top. In Twisted lip however, a character (although not a very substantial one) is introduced as the first word in the story, with a short background on his dead brother and how he died of an opium addiction. This being quite pointless at first is quite a cunning trick the writer has introduced here, as for the next few paragraphs the reader thinks that this Isa Whitney is what the story is based on, the trick being the writer has made the story out to be something it is not, which is intentionally ironic as the story is based on a man trying to conceal the truth. A more close up view to Twisted Lips construction there a few references to class, like dregs of the docks and a vile alley, these let the reader understand Dr. Watsons train of thought and how he considers himself to be, within the very thick walls separating class at this time. When Watson reaches the opium den he refers to it like it was a tomb, a glimpse of bodies lying and using words like lacklustre, the writer sets a very dark, dreary place and referring to the smoke as gloom. Soon after Isa makes his way to the cab Sherlock Holmes inevitably makes an appearance, after a brief introduction Isa and his troubles have left the picture and Watson and Holmes take the limelight of the story. This point is quite a major difference as it shows the authors different style of writing compared to Front, as Front has quite a few characters and even less are properly introduced with past family history, whereas Twisted Lip portrays a much larger world to the reader and even though Isa Whitney is key to the irony and depth of Twisted Lip the reader wont realize that until approaching the end of the story, this just shows how similar and quite different the two stories I am comparing are. When the introduction in Twisted Lip is over and the complication of the story begins to unfold, it seems like another introduction to the actual story (or so it seems) and the previous little fiasco (that to an untrained eye could seem like the baseline of a story) was almost completely irrelevant to the complication of the main plot. This brings the reader to Watson and Holmes sitting in a cab heading to the home of the missing Neville St. Clair and as they travel Holmes tells Watson the story so far. Sherlock Holmes narrative lasts about fourteen paragraphs long, and describes the events passing and it becomes quite obvious that Holmes has been working on this case for some time. Holmes tells Watson what sounds like a murder inquiry and starts to explain the life of a successful man with a lot of money in the bank, no reason there-fore, to think that money troubles have been weighing upon his mind which facilitates the irony of Twisted Lip as it says later in the narration that the beggar that actually is Neville St. Boone put all his coins from begging that day into his coat to weigh it down. Another hint is when Holmes mentions the cripple looking a powerful and well nurtured man. The writer is obviously dropping these clues for a reason and an intelligent reader may pick up on these tell tale hints, but they are still very discreet and the impression of a murder story still sets the theme. The lack of references to class in Holmes narrative shows to the reader that Holmes is quite a different man to Watson, and that he doesnt really care about where he stands economically or anyone else, unless it has some relevance to his case for example; he has 220 standing to his credit. The writer portrays the villa and Nevilles wife to be definitely well off, using the mousseline de soie as a direct indication of the financial security of the missing mans wife and in doing so, adds to the eagerness later on of why Neville had became a beggar if he had all this wealth in the first place, but it is to the readers surprise that his begging money paid for the house as well, this gives the reader the motive to Nevilles begging addiction, the vast amount of money he could make. Showing the characters motives in stories give the characters depth, that is why this was an important point to make.

Organisation Learning Essay Example for Free

Organisation Learning Essay Where Argyris and Schon were the first to propose models that facilitate organizational learning, the following literatures have followed in the tradition of their work: Argyris and Schon (1978) distinguish between single-loop and double-loop learning, related to Gregory Batesons concepts of first and second order learning. In single-loop learning, individuals, groups, or organizations modify their actions according to the difference between expected and obtained outcomes. In double-loop learning, the entities (individuals, groups or organization) question the values, assumptions and policies that led to the actions in the first place; if they are able to view and modify those, then second-order or double-loop learning has taken place. Double loop learning is the learning about single-loop learning. ?March and Olsen (1975) attempt to link up individual and organizational learning. In their model, individual beliefs lead to individual action, which in turn may lead to an organizational action and a response from the environment which may induce improved individual beliefs and the cycle then repeats over and over. Learning occurs as better beliefs produce better actions. ?Kim (1993), as well, in an article titled The link between individual and organizational learning, integrates Argyris, March and Olsen and another model by Kofman into a single comprehensive model; further, he analyzes all the possible breakdowns in the information flows in the model, leading to failures in organizational learning; for instance, what happens if an individual action is rejected by the organization for political or other reasons and therefore no organizational action takes place? ?Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) developed a four stage spiral model of organizational learning. They started by differentiating Polanyis concept of tacit knowledge from explicit knowledge and describe a process of alternating between the two. Tacit knowledge is personal, context specific, subjective knowledge, whereas explicit knowledge is codified, systematic, formal, and easy to communicate. The tacit knowledge of key personnel within the organization can be made explicit, codified in manuals, and incorporated into new products and processes. This process they called externalization. The reverse process (from explicit to implicit) they call internalization because it involves employees internalizing an organizations formal rules, procedures, and other forms of explicit knowledge. They also use the term socialization to denote the sharing of tacit knowledge, and the term combination to denote the dissemination of codified knowledge. According to this model, knowledge creation and organizational learning take a path of socialization, externalization, combination, internalization, socialization, externalization, combination . . . etc. in an infinite spiral. ?Nick Bontis et al. (2002) empirically tested a model of organizational learning that encompassed both stocks and flows of knowledge across three levels of analysis: individual, team and organization. Results showed a negative and statistically significant relationship between the misalignment of stocks and flows and organizational performance. ?Flood (1999) discusses the concept of organizational learning from Peter Senge and the origins of the theory from Argyris and Schon. The author aims to re-think Senges The Fifth Discipline through systems theory. The author develops the concepts by integrating them with key theorists such as Bertalanffy, Churchman, Beer, Checkland and Ackoff. Conceptualizing organizational learning in terms of structure, process, meaning, ideology and knowledge, the author provides insights into Senge within the context of the philosophy of science and the way in which systems theorists were influenced by twentieth-century advances from the classical assumptions of science. ?Imants (2003) provides theory development for organizational learning in schools within the context of teachers professional communities as learning communities, which is compared and contrasted to teaching communities of practice. Detailed with an analysis of the paradoxes for organizational learning in schools, two mechanisms for professional development and organizational learning, (1) steering information about teaching and learning and (2) encouraging interaction among teachers and workers, are defined as critical for effective organizational learning. ?Common (2004) discusses the concept of organisational learning in a political environment to improve public policy-making. The author details the initial uncontroversial reception of organisational learning in the public sector and the development of the concept with the learning organization. Definitional problems in applying the concept to public policy are addressed, noting research in UK local government that concludes on the obstacles for organizational learning in the public sector: (1) overemphasis of the individual, (2) resistance to change and politics, (3) social learning is self-limiting, i.e. individualism, and (4) political blame culture. The concepts of policy learning and policy transfer are then defined with detail on the conditions for realizing organizational learning in the public sector. Organizational knowledge What is the nature of knowledge created, traded and used in organizations? Some of this knowledge can be termed technical ? knowing the meaning of technical words and phrases, being able to read and make sense of economic data and being able to act on the basis of law-like generalizations. Scientific knowledge is ?propositional; it takes the form of causal generalizations ? whenever A, then B. For example, whenever water reaches the temperature of 100 degrees, it boils; whenever it boils, it turns into steam; steam generates pressure when in an enclosed space; pressure drives engines. And so forth. A large part of the knowledge used by managers, however, does not assume this form. The complexities of a managers task are such that applying A may result in B, C, or Z. A recipe or an idea that solved very well a particular problem, may, in slightly different circumstances backfire and lead to ever more problems. More important than knowing a whole lot of theories, recipes and solutions for a manager is to know which theory, recipe or solution to apply in a specific situation. Sometimes a manager may combine two different recipes or adapt an existing recipe with some important modification to meet a situation at hand. Managers often use knowledge in the way that a handyman will use his or her skills, the materials and tools that are at hand to meet the demands of a particular situation. Unlike an engineer who will plan carefully and scientifically his or her every action to deliver the desired outcome, such as a steam engine, a handyman is flexible and opportunistic, often using materials in unorthodox or unusual ways, and relies a lot on trial and error. This is what the French call ? bricolage, the resourceful and creative deployment skills and materials to meet each challenge in an original way. Rule of thumb, far from being the enemy of management, is what managers throughout the world have relied upon to inform their action. In contrast to the scientific knowledge that guides the engineer, the physician or the chemist, managers are often informed by a different type of know-how. This is sometimes referred to a ? narrative knowledge or ? experiential knowledge, the kind of knowledge that comes from experience and resides in stories and narratives of how real people in the real world dealt with real life problems, successfully or unsuccessfully. Narrative knowledge is what we use in everyday life to deal with awkward situations, as parents, as consumers, as patients and so forth. We seek the stories of people in the same situation as ourselves and try to learn from them. As the Chinese proverb says A wise man learns from experience; a wiser man learns from the experience of others. Narrative knowledge usually takes the form of organization stories (see organization story and organizational storytelling). These stories enable participants to make sense of the difficulties and challenges they face; by listening to stories, members of organizations learn from each others experiences, adapt the recipes used by others to address their own difficulties and problems. Narrative knowledge is not only the preserve of managers. Most professionals (including doctors, accountants, lawyers, business consultants and academics) rely on narrative knowledge, in addition to their specialist technical knowledge, when dealing with concrete situations as part of their work. More generally, narrative knowledge represents an endlessly mutating reservoir of ideas, recipes and stories that are traded mostly by word or mouth on the internet. They are often apocryphal and may be inaccurate or untrue yet, they have the power to influence peoples sense making and actions. Individual versus organizational learning Learning by individuals in an organizational context is a well understood process. This is the traditional domain of human resources, including activities such as: training, increasing skills, work experience, and formal education. Given that the success of any organization is founded on the knowledge of the people who work for it, these activities will and, indeed, must continue. However, individual learning is only a prerequisite to organizational learning. Others take it farther with continuous learning. The world is orders of magnitude more dynamic than that of our parents, or even when we were young. Waves of change are crashing on us virtually one on top of another. Change has become the norm rather than the exception. Continuous learning throughout ones career has become essential to remain relevant in the workplace. Again, necessary but not sufficient to describe organizational learning. What does it mean to say that an organization learns? Simply summing individual learning is inadequate to model organizational learning. The following definition outlines the essential difference between the two: A learning organization actively creates, captures, transfers, and mobilizes knowledge to enable it to adapt to a changing environment. Thus, the key aspect of organizational learning is the interaction that takes place among individuals. A learning organization does not rely on passive or ad hoc process in the hope that organizational learning will take place through serendipity or as a by-product of normal work. A learning organization actively promotes, facilitates, and rewards collective learning. Creating (or acquiring) knowledge can be an individual or group activity. However, this is normally a small-scale, isolated activity steeped in the jargon and methods of knowledge workers. As first stated by Lucilius in the 1st century BC, Knowledge is not knowledge until someone else knows that one knows. Capturing individual learning is the first step to making it useful to an organization. There are many methods for capturing knowledge and experience, such as publications, activity reports, lessons learned, interviews, and presentations. Capturing includes organizing knowledge in ways that people can find it; multiple structures facilitate searches regardless of the users perspective (e. g. , who, what, when, where, why,and how). Capturing also includes storage in repositories, databases, or libraries to insure that the knowledge will be available when and as needed. Transferring knowledge requires that it be accessible to everyone when and where they need it. In a digital world, this involves browser-activated search engines to find what one is looking for. A way to retrieve content is also needed, which requires a communication and network infrastructure. Tacit knowledge may be shared through communities of practice or consulting experts. It is also important that knowledge is presented in a way that users can understand it. It must suit the needs of the user to be accepted and internalized. Mobilizing knowledge involves integrating and using relevant knowledge from many, often diverse, sources to solve a problem or address an issue. Integration requires interoperability standards among various repositories. Using knowledge may be through simple reuse of existing solutions that have worked previously. It may also come through adapting old solutions to new problems. Conversely, a learning organization learns from mistakes or recognizes when old solutions no longer apply. Use may also be through synthesis; that is creating a broader meaning or a deeper level of understanding. Clearly, the more rapidly knowledge can be mobilized and used, the more competitive an organization. An organization must learn so that it can adapt to a changing environment. Historically, the life-cycle of organizations typically spanned stable environments between major socioeconomic changes. Blacksmiths who didnt become mechanics simply fell by the wayside. More recently, many fortune 500 companies of two decades ago no longer exist. Given the ever-accelerating rate of global-scale change, the more critical learning and adaptation become to organization relevance, success, and ultimate survival. Organizational learning is a social process, involving interactions among many individuals leading to well-informed decision making. Thus, a culture that learns and adapts as part of everyday working practices is essential. Reuse must equal or exceed reinvent as a desirable behavior. Adapting an idea must be rewarded along with its initial creation. Sharing to empower the organization must supersede controlling to empower an individual. Clearly, shifting from individual to organizational learning involves a non-linear transformation. Once someone learns something, it is available for their immediate use. In contrast, organizations need to create, capture, transfer, and mobilize knowledge before it can be used. Although technology supports the latter, these are primarily social processes within a cultural environment, and cultural change, however necessary, is a particularly challenging undertaking. Learning organization The work in Organizational Learning can be distinguished from the work on a related concept, the learning organization. This later body of work, in general, uses the theoretical findings of organizational learning (and other research in organizational development, system theory, and cognitive science) in order to prescribe specific recommendations about how to create organizations that continuously and effectively learn. This practical approach was championed by Peter Senge in his book The Fifth Discipline. Diffusion of innovations Diffusion of innovations theory explores how and why people adopt new ideas, practices and products. It may be seen as a subset of the anthropological concept of diffusion and can help to explain how ideas are spread by individuals, social networks and organizations.

Picornavirus Life Cycle and Processing of Proteins

Picornavirus Life Cycle and Processing of Proteins Introduction Picornaviruses are small positive strand RNA viruses with single stranded genomic RNA capable of causing various diseases in humans (Porter, 1993). The picornavirus RNA genome has 3 poly(A) tail and a virus encoded particle Vpg at the 5 end. Unlike other RNA genome viruses, picornavirus doesnt contain a 7- methyl guanosine cap at the 5end intead they contain VPg a viral protein linked at the 5 end of the genome (Bedard and Semler, 2004). IRES (Internal ribosome entry site) is a clover leaf secondary structure at the 5 non-coding region and in the polypeptide there is a 3 noncoding region which contains the poly(A) tract required for the synthesis of minus RNA strand for RNA replication and translation. The minus strand RNa increases the efficiency of RNA replication and translation. The structural and non structural proteins are found at the polyprotein and the polyprotein is divided into three regions such as P1, P2, P3 where P1 contains the structural proteins (VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP 4) required for capsid formation and the non structural proteins P2 and P3 are required for replication and membrane rearrangement. The P2 and P3 region contains proteinase 3C and viral RNA dependent polymerase 3D (Stanway, 1990). There are 11 mature polypeptides with three main cleavage intermediates. UTR- Untranslated region; IRES- Internal ribosome entry site; VPg- Viral protein genome-linked (Lin et al, 2009). Processing of proteins The processing of proteins starts from the primary cleavage occurring between P1 and P2, mediated by viral protease 2A containing the cysteine nucleophile and it cleaves P1 and P2 leaving the viral polyprotein at cis. The P2 and the P3 precursors are separated from P1 region. For aphthovirus self cleavage takes place at the P1 domain region of the polyprotein by L proteinase at the cis whereas the L proteins in cardiovirus possess no proteolytic activity and hence in aphthovirus the cleavage of P1 is initiated by proteinase 3C. 2A proteinase also cleaves the cellular factors in entero and rhinovirus where eIF4G, a cap binding complex is cleaved and due to this even the there is a shut off in host translation. The L proteinase also cleaves eIF4G in aphtho virus during primary cleavage (Ryan and Flint,1997). There are four structural proteins in Picornavirus capsids such as VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4 where the VP4 protein is inside of the capsid. The VP4 proteins are formed by the cleavage of VP0 precursor, late during the assembly and are modified after translation by the covalent attachment of myristic acid at the amino terminus (Cann, 1997). Picornaviruses consist of three types of proteinase L, 2A and 3C. the aphtho or F M D V polyproteins are processed by more than one proteinase. The L proteinase are available in two forms Lb pro and Lab pro. L pro possess the same function as 2A proteinase of entero and rhinovirus which cleave the host cell protein eIF4G but the major difference between L pro and 2A is that the L pro cleave in between Gly479 and Arg470 residues whereas 2A cleave in between Arg486 and Gly487. Lb pro plays a major role in substrate binding and also in shut off host cell translation like that of 2A proteinase (Ryan and Flint,1997). 2A proteinase cleaves at its own N terminus and the primary cleavage is carried at the P1 capsid protein precursor. The nature of 2A proteinase is unclear and the sequence similarities led to the understanding that 2A pro catalytic triad composed of His20, Asp38 and also an active site nucleophile of cysteine. 2A pro can be inhibited by active thiol proteinases such as iodoacetamide and N-ethylmaleimide. 2A proteinase also inhibits the host cell protein synthesis which mediated the cleavage of eIF-4G, a 220K Da polypeptide but it was later understood that the 2A pro just initiated as an activating factor for another proteolytic activity to cleave eIF-4G. Generally 2A pro shuts off the host cell translation because eIF-4G deals with cap dependent mode of translation in host cell. In poliovirus, 2A acts a trans activator of translation at IRES when host cell is not imhibited. When 2A pro was mutated it led to loss of cleavage activity in trans but not in cis, and no replication of vira l RNA was seen hence this confirms that 2A pro is required for viral RNA replication. The aphtho and cardiovirus 2A proteinase show no sequence similarity to entero/rhino virus although 2A protease are similar in size. The primary cleavage of hepatovirus and echovirus does not take place by the cleavage of 2A proteinase and the 2A protein in hepatovirus and echovirus showed no proteolytic activity (Ryan and Flint,1997). 2B and its precursor 2BC is a viral protein consisting of two hydrophobic regions with ÃŽ ± amphipathic a-helix domains leading to the alteration of membranes in the infected cells. The virus induced vesicles are formed when 2B and its precursor 2BC enter into the host membrane of Golgi and ER complex by altering the permeability of plasma membrane to form virporin complex. Once the 2B and the precursor 2BC enters the host there is an imbalance in Ca2+ homeostatis mechanism and blocks protein transport from ER to Golgi and also initiates anti-apoptosis property. The 2B protein also blocks the activation of IRF-3 in Hepatitis A virus through which the cellular IFN-ÃŽ ² gene transcription is inhibited so that there is no harm to Hepatitis A virus in the host. (Lin et al, 2009). The vi ral RNA was anchored for the spatial arrangement required for replication by the 2C protein. The mutagenesis experiments confirmed that the 2C proteins are involved in strand separation of viral RNA while replication (Porter, 1993) Secondary cleavage: The secondary cleavage is carried out within the viral proteins and hence it is mediated by 3C proteinase which plays a very important role in protein processing and RNA replication. The replication proteins are generated within the P2 and P3 precursor proteins when 3C self cleaves at the P3 region of the polyprotein. 3C proteinase or the 3CD precursors cleaves the poly(A) binding protein to inhibit viral translation during late poliovirus infection. 3C also cleaves the host cell protein required for transcription. The key processing step for the viral protein processing cascade is initiated by 3C proteinase. The 3CD proteins also play a major role in carring out important functions during RNA replication (Bedard and Semler, 2004). The major function of 3C proteinase in secondary cleavages is that it process the capsid and the replicative protein precursors. The processing of capsid in poliovirus is done by 3CD proteinase and not 3C proteinase. The 3C proteins are also used to cleave various number of host cell proteins such as histone H3, transcription factor IIIC, TATA binding protein and microtubule-associated protein 4. The 3CD proteinase depends on the host cell protein EF-1 ÃŽ ± and the host cell factor is replaced by 3CD forming 3AB:3CD proteinase complex to bind at the 3 end of the poliovirus genome (Ryan and Flint, 1997). The 3A protein inhibits the cellular protein function and also presents the membrane proteins during viral infection. When the poliovirus 3A protein was mutated, the uridlylation of VPg was affected and also inhibited the viral RNAs plus strand initiation (Porter, 1993). 2B is a viral protein which is required for virion release by altering the cell membrane increasing permeability which is required for poliovirus RNA replication. 2C proteins and its precursor 2BC is necessary for the re-arrangement of intracellular membranes and also for the viral induced cytoplasmic vesicles. 2C binds with the minus strand of poliovirus RNA at the 3 non coding region and hence it plays a role in positive RNA viral strand synthesis and also in minus strand RNA synthesis. 3C and 3D protein helps in immune response interference and also in viral RNA replication. 3A protein is very much important because these proteins help the picornaviruses to escape from MHC-I ( Major histo compatability) expression and intracellular membrane transport by inhibiting both the MHC-I and intracellular membrane transport of the host cell. 3B protein also called as VPg is linked to the 5 end of both the positive and negative strand RNAs. 3AB, 3C, 3CD and 3D are required during the proces s of assembly in replication and also initiates viral RNA polymerase 3D and self cleavage of 3CD. 3C and 3D are involved in binding viral RNA, protein processing and RNA replication. The cloverleaf structure of poliovirus virus and coxsackievirus consist of stem loops in which the viral polymerase precursor, 3CD binds to the stem loop I. 3CD also binds with the host cell protein poly r(C) binding protein 2 (PCBP2) to help only in RNA replication. 3D is responsible for VPg uridylylation and RNA chain elongation while synthesising viral RNA because it contains RNA dependent polymerases and even tends for error prone and mis-incorporation of 1-2 nucleotides per replication (Bedard and Semler, 2004). VP1, VP2 and VP3 are the three larger capsid proteins folded into eight stranded antiparallel ÃŽ ² barrels and a small fourth protein called VP4 is located inside the capsid. The 3C protease cleaves VP3, VP1 and VP0 at the P1 region. The amino termini of VP0, VP3, VP1 initiates the assembly of the virion particle. VP0 peptides are cleaved into VP2 and VP4 at the final stage of processing and assembly. VP4 and VP2 are adjacent to each other at their ends when cleaved. The infection of the host is initiated when the capsid proteins bind to the receptor on the host membrane. ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule 1) is the receptor molecule for the major rhinovirus which binds the cell to adjacent substrates. Poliovirus receptor molecule is an integral membrane protein consisting of one variable and two constant domains and this receptor molecule attaches to the host cell to initiate replication process. The general receptors used by the various picornaviruses are poliovirus receptor f or poliovirus attachment, ICAM-1 receptor for major rhinovirus, LDL-R for minor group rhinovirus, CD55 or DAF receptor for some echoviruses and group B coxsackie B1-B6 receptors. A deep cleft known as canyon is formed by flanking the monomers, VP1, VP2 and VP3 which helps the virus to escape the immune response by the host cell. The interaction of capsid proteins with the intracellular host factors affects the induction of apoptosis (Lin et al, 2009). Host cell shut off mechanism The mRNA of picornavirus is uncapped and hence the translation takes place by directly introducing ribosomes at internal ribosome entry sites (IRES). The cleavage of eukaryotic translation initiation factor, eIF4G by 2A protease inhibits the cap dependent mRNA translation of the host cell. When poliovirus is introduced into the host it inhibits the host cell translation leading to apoptotic cell death. The eIFGII is more resistant to the infection of poliovirus than eIFGI. The death inducing proteins encoded by cellular mRNA were translated by cap independent translation leading to apoptotic death. The cleavage of eIF4GI by caspase 3 also induces apoptotic cell death but differs from poliovirus 2A protease process. Severe inhibition of translation leading to apoptosis is seen by both the caspase 3 activity and 2A protease. IRES elements in mRNAs encode proteins which regulate apoptotis. Even poly (A) protein and dystropin protein are also cleaved by 2A protease.. Hence, the cleavage of poly(A) binding protein by 2A protease cause apoptotis and the cleavage of dystrophin protein can induce apoptotic process due to cytoskeleton disruption (Goldstaub et al, 1999). The enterovirus 2B protein suppresses apoptotic pathway of the host cell by controlling intracellular Ca2+ homeostatis. The apoptotic responses are initiated by the 3C and 2A proteinase to inhibit cellular transcription and cap dependent translation. When the 2B proteins are suppressed by caspase-3 activation it leads to apoptotis (Campanella et al, 2004). The cellular mRNAs encode for the death inducing proteins which are translated by cap independent translation. When eIF4GI and eIF4GII are cleaved by 2A protease it leads to apoptotic death because it inhibits cap dependent translation. The 2A proteins also cleave the poly(A) binding protein and the dystropin protein which leads to apoptotis through a translational mechanism (Goldstaub et al, 2000). The eIFE is the component of cap binding complex of cap structure at 5 end of mRNA. The 40 S ribosomal subunit checks at the 5 non coding region until it finds the initiating codon or the the authentic start codon AUG and then sends a signal to the 60S to form a complex. For translation to occur in mRNA the 5 non coding region with the cap end should bind with the eIFE and once it binds to the cap the 40 S ribosomal subunit scans for the authentic initiation or start codon AUG and once it finds the AUG codon it gives a signal to 60 S ribosomal subunit to form a complex with 40 S and initiate the translation along with initiation factors (Bedard and Semler, 2004). In picornavirus the 5 end of mRNA in the non coding region is not capped and hence to initiate translation, the cap independent mechanism is required. Hence in picornavirus, the 40 S ribosomal subunit scans for ribonucleo protein complex at 5 non coding region and initiation take place to recognise authentic start codon. The eIF4G is cleaved by viral proteinase 3C and 2A which shuts off the host cell translation (cap dependent) and also cleaves poly(A) binding protein (PABP)and hence it inhibits the host cell translation. When the host cell is infected by Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV), the eIF4G subunit which is responsible for the cap dependent translation of the host is cleaved by the L protein and for the Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV), the cap dependent translation of host is blocked by a repressor protein 4E-BP1 which binds at the 5 cap region and hence the repressor protein 4E-BP1 blocks the binding of eIF-4E which is the cap binding subunit and hence the host translation is shut off. The Hepatitis A virus (HAV) does not shut off the host translation because it requires eIF4G for its translation (Bedard and Semler, 2004). All picornavirus consist of internal ribosome entry site (IRES) and are mapped to the 5 non coding region. There are four types of IRES seen in picornaviruses based on the RNA secondary structures. The enterovirus and rhinovirus comes under the Type I IRES. Aphthovirus and cardiovirus comes under the Type II IRES and the Hepatitis virus comes under the Type III IRES. The porcine reschovirus comes under the Type IV elements. The IRES mediated translation is initiated by two factors Canonical initiation factors and IRES trans-activating factors. Canonical initiation factors to initiate IRES mediated translation: The IRES elements of poliovirus and EMCV are similar and require the initiation factors to be primed at the 40S ribosomal subunit. The IRES mediated translation is initiated by certain canonical factors such as eIF4G and eIF4B to bind to the viral RNA and also certain other subunits such as eIf3 and eIF2 to pre-bind to the 40 S ribosomal subunits. The IRES translation of poliovirus and EMCV is promoted by the poly(A) binding protein (Lin et al, 2009). Noncanonical initiation factors to initiate IRES mediated translation: The polypyrimidine tract-binding protein (PTB) is a 57 KDa mRNA splicing factor which increases and promotes the activity of IRES in poliovirus. The molecular switching from translation to the replication of poliovirus is done by the proteolytic cleavage of PTB. The PTB also functions as RNA chaperon by stabilizing the type II IRES of FMDV and EMCV. Lupus autoantigen (La) is a 52 KDa of nuclear protein which binds to certain distinct parts of HAV IRES and with small interfering RNA and hence the HAV IRES translation and replication is suppressed. Poly(rC) binding protein (PCBP2)bind to the type I IRES of picornavirus and hence it leads to internal initiation of translation in type I IREs elements. The heterogenous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 (hnRNP A1) is an RNA binding protein which binds to the 5 UTR of HRV2 and regulates transcription (Lin et al, 2009). The picornavirus infection has lowered the level of host cell transcription and hence there is a increase in the number of viral RNA molecules. The nuclear localization signal (NLS) present in the poliovirus 3D protein targets the 3CD precursor to the nucleus for autocatalytic final maturation and allow the release of 3C protease (Bedard and Semler, 2004).) Picornavirus RNA replication: The new positive and negative strand viral RNA are synthesised by using the viral encoded RNA dependent RNA polymerase 3D. The RNA dependent RNA polymerase 3D acts as a protein primer and forms VPg-pU-pU which initiates the viral RNA replication and the process is known as VPg uridylylation. When VPg uridylylation is done, the poly(A) tract at the 3 end acts as an initiation site for the synthesis of negative strand RNA synthesis. The negative strand developed act as a template for the synthesis of new viral positive RNA strand by cap independent translation. Many or numerous copies of positive viral RNA strand can be synthesised from a single negative strand. In picornaviruses, there are numerous RNA sequences and secondary structures within the 5 non coding region which are essential for the RNA replication. The viral protein 3CD and the host protein, PCBP binds at the 5 cloverleaf structure of the non coding region. The cellular host protein PCBP binds to loop b and the 3CD binds to loop d of the 5 cloverleaf structure. A ternary complex is formed when 3CD and PCBP2 binds with the cloverleaf structure along with the viral RNA to form RNA replication. When PCBP2 was depleted, there was poor RNA synthesis in poliovirus and hence it was recognised that PCBP2 play a vital role in RNA replication. PABP is a cellular protein which binds to the poly(A) tract at the 3 end of viral RNA interact with 5 cloverleaf structure of PCBP2 and the viral protein 3CD. When the PABP at the 3 end interact with PCBP2 at the 5 end, the viral RNA may interact and hence there is an initiation of replication process. Even the 3AB and 3CD proteins interact at the 5 cloverleaf structure to each other there by initiating viral RNA replication. The cis-acting replication element (cre) was found within the coding region of picornavirus genomic RNA which is required for viral replication and viability. In aphthovirus the cre structure is at the non coding region of the 5 end. The cre sequence AAACA was found in the conserved hairpin structure at the coding region of picornaviruses required for RNA replication. The cre elements act as a binding site for viral replication proteins and also as a template for VPg uridylylation. At cre element, VPg is more efficient than at the poly(A) tract and uridylylation on cre structure leads to only positive strand RNA synthesis and for uridylylation and replication initiation of the minus strand uses the poly(A) tract. The interaction between 3CD with cre and cloverleaf RNA may arrange the viral RNA structurally for efficient RNA replication. The 3 NCR and the 3 poly(A) tract forms the site of replication for minus strand RNA synthesis. The poly(A) tract at the 3 end functions for virus viability, impart stability and also for the efficient RNA replication by interacting with viral RNA at the 5 end (Bedard and Semler, 2004). The negative strand is first formed by using the VPg protein primer and the VPg plays an important role in replication. The enzymatic activity of 3D polymerase has lead to VPg uridylylation which covalently couples with the tyrosine residue in the VPg protein. The 3 poly (A) tract template may also involve other host proteins for replication. The 2C bind at the 3 end the negative strand showing ATPase activity. The RNA polymerase 3D unwinds to develop viral RNA synthesis (Bedard and Semler, 2004).

To Kill A Mocking Bird :: To Kill a Mockingbird Essays

To Kill a Mockingbird is set in Maycomb County, an imaginary district in southern Alabama. The time is the years of the Great Depression in the United States. The mood of the novel is mostly light and humorous, especially when talking about the children’s antics. However, another mood throughout the novel is somber and calm, because come important issues are being valued and dealt with. Atticus’ dealings with the blacks, the negative attitudes of some other members of the community, the trial of Tom Robinson and his gruesome end, depicts a seriousness and a grave reconsideration of accepted beliefs, which is expected of the readers by the author. Atticus Finch, the father of Scout and Jem, is a highly respected and responsible citizen of Maycomb County. An attorney by profession, he has always tried to instill good values and a sense of moral in his children. Jem is a true brother to Scout, helping her out of scrapes, escorting her to school and back, guiding her at times and comforting her in general. When he is given money to buy something for himself, he buys a gift for Scout too. When he finds out that Scout has eaten the gum found in the knothole of the oak tree, he insists that she gargle her throat. When she muddles up her role in the pageant and is mortified, Jem is the one to console her. He displays much genuine concern and consideration in dealing with his unruly sister. Scout, because of her age, and being the youngest in the family, is impulsive by nature and extremely emotional too. She unthinkingly rushes into fights and scrapes, cries when her ego is hurt and is generally is rash in her actions. Conflict- The protagonist of the novel is Atticus Finch, who is the prime initiator and coordinator of various events in the novel. In his involvement with the poor whites of the community, like Walter Cunningham, as well as the deprived blacks, like Tom Robinson, he is portrayed as a just, sincere and a greatly considerate human being. He has clear-cut values and beliefs, and it is his sincere wish that his children too grow up with a broad outlook and an unprejudiced way of thinking. He is indifferent to what others have to say or think about his actions, and he is steadfast in his beliefs of equality and liberty. Bob Ewell serves as the antagonist villain in the novel, with his laid-back way of living and the utter disregard he has for other human beings.

Over the Rhine Essay -- Music Musicians Bands Essays

Over the Rhine   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is a rare occurrence in today’s over-amplified, bass-kicking sound world to leave a concert feeling as if you actually heard the music. Over the Rhine provided one of those concerts on Thursday October 2nd at Birdys Bar and Grill in Indianapolis. My personal congratulations to the sound guy, who’s mixing allowed the audience to really hear all the different layers of music and different instrumentation really being played.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another rare occurrence; real songwriters and musicians playing their own music! The five-piece band is led by vocalist, Karin Barquist, and her husband Linford Detweiler, keyboardist and collaborator. The rest of the band consists of Paul Moak who played the sitar during the opening song and lead guitar during most of the others, Will Seyles on drums, and Rick Plant on bass guitar. But Barquist seems to be the key member in the band. She has all the qualities a good lead singer should have; great voice, good-looking, poised, mature and confident. She really runs the show up there, and makes it look effortless in the process.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The style of music cannot really be defined as one genre. The audience made it even harder to discern the kind of music being played. The people ranged in ages, gender, race, and dress. They just seemed like â€Å"real† people, not trying to be any part of one group, just like their music.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This mix of folky, pop, one attempt at a slowly spoken rap song, and country music produced all different kinds of songs. The songs have the type of lyrics that make you relate your own life to every single one of them. They’re deep, and well thought out. Barquist doesn’t just repeat the same nonsense lyric over and over. Her voice, to me, sounds a little like my favorite artist, Sarah McLaughlin. But it could really go any way she wanted; hard, soft, loud, weak, whiny, smooth, short and breathy. I have also heard her compared to singer Norah Jones. It seems like the marital bond between Barquist and Detweiler might have served as a source for lyric material.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On Thursday night, the stage at Birdys was adorned with oriental rugs, candles, and vases of flowers to create ambiance. It was nice, but they wouldn’t have needed it, the music spoke for itself. They played songs from two of their albums, Good Dog Bad Dog, but mostly their latest, Ohio. This album is the one that drew the crowd ... ...never articulate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A couple of other songs they played were â€Å"Bothered,† â€Å"Cruel and Pretty† and â€Å"Changes Come.† If you had never heard the band before tonight, this is where you would probably think all the songs sounded very similar. Slow, piano and sad. The variety lies in the songwriting, if you start paying attention to the lyrics now, you’d have a different opinion. I almost think what they say is so poignant sometimes it should be in a book or poem by itself. But on the other hand, if you took away the way Barquist sings it, or the accompanying instrumentation, I doubt you would get the same idea. They can even make an acoustic guitar sound like it’s in pain and crying.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  They performed two songs during a much appreciated encore, the title track to their new album, â€Å"Ohio,† and a freestyle guitar solo. Even though all their songs are pretty much slow and sad, I left the concert feeling as if I had just experience every emotion or feeling there was. There style is so soft and bare. They lay it all on the table, take it or leave it. Not interested in mainstream, happy with their underground following, and plus one more fan after the show in Indianapolis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Negotiation and Dispute Resolution

CHAPTER ONE The Nature of Negotiation 4-2 Introduction Negotiation is something that everyone does, almost daily 4-3 Negotiations Negotiations occur for several reasons: †¢ To agree on how to share or divide a limited resource †¢ To create something new that neither party could attain on his or her own †¢ To resolve a problem or dispute between the parties 4-4 Approach to the Subject Most people think bargaining and negotiation mean the same thing; however, we will be distinctive about the way we use these two words: †¢ Bargaining: describes the competitive, win-lose situation †¢ Negotiation: refers to win-win situations such as hose that occur when parties try to find a mutually acceptable solution to a complex conflict 4-5 Three Important Themes 1. The definition of negotiation and the basic characteristics of negotiation situations 2. Interdependence, the relationship between people and groups that most often leads them to negotiate 3. Understanding the dy namics of conflict and conflict management processes which serve as a backdrop for different ways that people approach and manage negotiations 4-6 Characteristics of a Negotiation Situation †¢ There are two or more parties †¢ There is a conflict of needs and desires between two or more parties Parties negotiate because they think they can get a better deal than by simply accepting what the other side offers them †¢ Parties expect a â€Å"give-and-take† process 4-7 Characteristics of a Negotiation Situation †¢ Parties search for agreement rather than: – – – – Fight openly Capitulate Break off contact permanently Take their dispute to a third party †¢ Successful negotiation involves: – Management of tangibles (e. g. , the price or the terms of agreement) – Resolution of intangibles (the underlying psychological motivations) such as winning, losing, saving face 4-8 Interdependence In negotiation, parties need eac h other to achieve heir preferred outcomes or objectives †¢ This mutual dependency is called interdependence †¢ Interdependent goals are an important aspect of negotiation †¢ Win-lose: I win, you lose †¢ Win-win: Opportunities for both parties to gain 4-9 Interdependence †¢ Interdependent parties are characterized by interlocking goals †¢ Having interdependent goals does not mean that everyone wants or needs exactly the same thing †¢ A mix of convergent and conflicting goals characterizes many interdependent relationships 4-10 Types of Interdependence Affect Outcomes †¢ Interdependence and the structure of the situation hape processes and outcomes – Zero-sum or distributive – one winner – Non-zero-sum or integrative – a mutual gains situation 4-11 Alternatives Shape Interdependence †¢ Evaluating interdependence depends heavily on the alternatives to working together †¢ The desirability to work together is better for outcomes †¢ Best available alternative: BATNA (acronym for Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement) 4-12 Mutual Adjustment †¢ Continues throughout the negotiation as both parties act to influence the other †¢ One of the key causes of the changes that occur during a negotiation †¢ The effective negotiator needs to understand how eople will adjust and readjust and how the negotiations might twist and turn, based on one’s own moves and the other’s responses 4-13 Mutual Adjustment and Concession Making †¢ When one party agrees to make a change in his/her position, a concession has been made †¢ Concessions restrict the range of options †¢ When a concession is made, the bargaining range is further constrained 4-14 Two Dilemmas in Mutual Adjustment †¢ Dilemma of honesty – Concern about how much of the truth to tell the other party †¢ Dilemma of trust – Concern about how much should negotiators believe wh at the other party tells them 4-15Value Claiming and Value Creation †¢ Opportunities to â€Å"win† or share resources – Claiming value: result of zero-sum or distributive situations where the object is to gain largest piece of resource – Creating value: result of non-zero-sum or integrative situation where the object is to have both parties do well 4-16 Value Claiming and Value Creation †¢ Most actual negotiations are a combination of claiming and creating value processes – Negotiators must be able to recognize situations that require more of one approach than the other – Negotiators must be versatile in their comfort and use of both major strategic approaches Negotiator perceptions of situations tend to be biased toward seeing problems as more distributive/competitive than they really are 4-17 Value Claiming and Value Creation Value differences that exist between negotiators include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Differences in interes t Differences in judgments about the future Differences in risk tolerance Differences in time preferences 4-18 Conflict Conflict may be defined as a: â€Å"sharp disagreement or opposition† and includes â€Å"the perceived divergence of interest, or a belief that the parties' current aspirations cannot be achieved simultaneously† 4-19 Levels of Conflict Intrapersonal or intrapsychic conflict – Conflict that occurs within an individual †¢ We want an ice cream cone badly, but we know that ice cream is very fattening †¢ Interpersonal conflict – Conflict is between individuals †¢ Conflict between bosses and subordinates, spouses, siblings, roommates, etc. 4-20 Levels of Conflict †¢ Intragroup Conflict – Conflict is within a group †¢ Among team and committee members, within families, classes etc. †¢ Intergroup Conflict – Conflict can occur between organizations, warring nations, feuding families, or within splintered , fragmented communities – These negotiations are the most complex -21 Dysfunctions of Conflict 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Competitive, win-lose goals Misperception and bias Emotionality Decreased communication Blurred issues Rigid commitments Magnified differences, minimized similarities Escalation of conflict 4-22 Functions and Benefits of Conflict 1. Makes organizational members more aware and able to cope with problems through discussion. 2. Promises organizational change and adaptation. 3. Strengthens relationships and heightens morale. 4. Promotes awareness of self and others. 5. Enhances personal development. 6. Encourages psychological development—it helps eople become more accurate and realistic in their self-appraisals. 7. Can be stimulating and fun. 4-23 The Dual Concerns Model 4-24 Styles of Conflict Management 1. Contending – Actors pursue own outcomes strongly, show little concern for other party obtaining their desired outcomes 2. Yielding – A ctors show little interest in whether they attain own outcomes, but are quite interested in whether the other party attains their outcomes 3. Inaction – Actors show little interest in whether they attain own outcomes, and little concern about whether the other party obtains their outcomes 4-25 Styles of Conflict Management . Problem solving – Actors show high concern in obtaining own outcomes, as well as high concern for the other party obtaining their outcomes 5. Compromising – Actors show moderate concern in obtaining own outcomes, as well as moderate concern for the other party obtaining their outcomes CHAPTER TWO Strategy and Tactics of Distributive Bargaining 4-27 Three Reasons Negotiators Should Be Familiar with Distributive Bargaining 1. Independent situations require knowing how this works in order to do well 2. Need to know how to counter the effects of the strategies 3. Every situation has the potential to require kills at the â€Å"claiming-valueâ₠¬  stage 4-28 The Distributive Bargaining Situation †¢ Goals of one party are in fundamental,direct conflict to another party †¢ Resources are fixed and limited †¢ Maximizing one’s own share of resources is the goal for both parties 4-29 The Distributive Bargaining Situation Situation includes: †¢ Starting points (initial offers) †¢ Target points †¢ Resistance points (walkaway) †¢ Alternative outcomes 4-30 The Distributive Bargaining Situation Party A – Seller Walkaway Point Initial Offer Party B – Buyer Target Point Target Point Asking Price Walkaway Point 4-31 The Role of Alternatives to aNegotiated Agreement †¢ Alternatives give the negotiator power to walk away from the negotiation – If alternatives are attractive, negotiators can: †¢ Set their goals higher †¢ Make fewer concessions – If there are no attractive alternatives: †¢ Negotiators have much less bargaining power 4-32 The Distribut ive Bargaining Situation Party A – Seller Walkaway Point Target Point Alternative Initial Offer Party B – Buyer Asking Price Alternative Target Point Walkaway Point 4-33 Fundamental Strategies †¢ Push for settlement near opponent’s resistance point †¢ Get the other party to change their resistance point If settlement range is negative, either: – Get the other side to change their resistance point – Modify your own resistance point †¢ Convince the other party that the settlement is the best possible 4-34 Keys to the Strategies The keys to implementing any of the four strategies are: †¢ Discovering the other party’s resistance point †¢ Influencing the other party’s resistance point 4-35 Tactical Tasks of Negotiators †¢ Assess outcome values and the costs of termination for the other party †¢ Manage the other party’s impressions †¢ Modify the other party’s perceptions †¢ Manipula te the actual costs of delay or termination 4-36Assess the Other Party’s Target, Resistance Point, and Costs of Terminating Negotiations †¢ Indirectly – Determine information opponent used to set: †¢ Target †¢ Resistance points †¢ Directly – Opponent reveals the information 4-37 Manage the Other Party’s Impressions †¢ Screen your behavior: – Say and do as little as possible †¢ Direct action to alter impressions – Present facts that enhance one’s position 4-38 Modify the Other Party’s Perceptions †¢ Make outcomes appear less attractive †¢ Make the cost of obtaining goals appear higher †¢ Make demands and positions appear more or less attractive to the other party – whichever uits your needs 4-39 Manipulate the Actual Costs of Delay or Termination †¢ Plan disruptive action – Raise the costs of delay to the other party †¢ Form an alliance with outsiders – Involve (or threaten to involve) other parties who can influence the outcome in your favor †¢ Schedule manipulations – One party is usually more vulnerable to delaying than the other 4-40 Positions Taken During Negotiations †¢ Opening offers – Where will you start? †¢ Opening stance – What is your attitude? †¢ Competitive? Moderate? †¢ Initial concessions – Should any be made? If so, how large? 4-41 Positions Taken During Negotiations The role of concessions – Without them, there is either capitulation or deadlock †¢ Patterns of concession making – The pattern contains valuable information †¢ Final offers (making a commitment) – â€Å"This is all I can do† 4-42 Commitments: Tactical Considerations †¢ Establishing a commitment – Three properties: †¢ Finality †¢ Specificity †¢ Consequences †¢ Preventing the other party from committing prematurely – Their co mmitment reduces your flexibility 4-43 Ways to Create a Commitment †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Public pronouncement Linking with an outside base Increase the prominence of demands Reinforce the threat or promise 4-44 Commitments:Tactical Considerations †¢ Ways to abandon a committed position – – – – Plan a way out Let it die silently Restate the commitment in more general terms Minimize the damage to the relationship if the other backs off 4-45 Closing the Deal †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Provide alternatives (2 or 3 packages) Assume the close Split the difference Exploding offers Deal sweeteners 4-46 Dealing with Typical Hardball Tactics †¢ Four main options: – Ignore them – Discuss them – Respond in kind – Co-opt the other party (befriend them) 4-47 Typical Hardball Tactics †¢ Good Cop/Bad Cop †¢ Lowball/Highball †¢ Bogey (playing up an issue of little importance) The Nibble (asking fo r a number of small concessions to) 4-48 Typical Hardball Tactics †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Chicken Intimidation Aggressive Behavior Snow Job (overwhelm the other party with information) 4-49 Summary Negotiators need to: †¢ Set a clear target and resistance points †¢ Understand and work to improve their BATNA †¢ Start with good opening offer †¢ Make appropriate concessions †¢ Manage the commitment process CHAPTER THREE Strategy and Tactics of Integrative Negotiation 4-51 What Makes Integrative Negotiation Different? †¢ Focus on commonalties rather than differences †¢ Address needs and interests, not positions Commit to meeting the needs of all involved parties †¢ Exchange information and ideas †¢ Invent options for mutual gain †¢ Use objective criteria to set standards 4-52 Overview of the Integrative Negotiation Process †¢ Create a free flow of information †¢ Attempt to understand the other negotiator’s real n eeds and objectives †¢ Emphasize the commonalties between the parties and minimize the differences †¢ Search for solutions that meet the goals and objectives of both sides 4-53 Key Steps in the Integrative Negotiation Process †¢ Identify and define the problem †¢ Understand the problem fully – identify interests and needs on both sides Generate alternative solutions †¢ Evaluate and select among alternatives 4-54 Claiming and Creating Value 4-55 Identify and Define the Problem †¢ Define the problem in a way that is mutually acceptable to both sides †¢ State the problem with an eye toward practicality and comprehensiveness †¢ State the problem as a goal and identify the obstacles in attaining this goal †¢ Depersonalize the problem †¢ Separate the problem definition from the search for solutions 4-56 Understand the Problem Fully— Identify Interests and Needs †¢ Interests: the underlying concerns, needs, desires, or fe ars that motivate a negotiator Substantive interests relate to key issues in the negotiation – Process interests are related to the way the dispute is settled – Relationship interests indicate that one or both parties value their relationship – Interests in principle: doing what is fair, right, acceptable, ethical may be shared by the parties 4-57 Observations on Interests †¢ There is almost always more than one †¢ Parties can have different interests at stake †¢ Often stem from deeply rooted human needs or values †¢ Can change †¢ Numerous ways to surface interests †¢ Surfacing interests is not always easy or to one’s best advantage 4-58Generate Alternative Solutions †¢ Invent options by redefining the problem set: – – – – – – – – Compromise Logroll Modify the pie Expand the pie Find a bridge solution Cut the costs for compliance Non specific compensation Subordinat ion †¢ Generate options to the problem as a given: – Brainstorming – Surveys – Electronic brainstorming 4-59 Evaluate and Select Alternatives †¢ Narrow the range of solution options †¢ Evaluate solutions on: – Quality – Objective standards – Acceptability †¢ Agree to evaluation criteria in advance †¢ Be willing to justify personal preferences †¢ Be alert to the influence of intangibles in selecting options Use subgroups to evaluate complex options 4-60 Evaluate and Select Alternatives †¢ Take time to â€Å"cool off† †¢ Explore different ways to logroll †¢ Exploit differences in expectations and risk/time preferences †¢ Keep decisions tentative and conditional until a final proposal is complete †¢ Minimize formality, record keeping until final agreements are closed 4-61 Factors That Facilitate Successful Integrative Negotiation †¢ Some common objective or goal †¢ Faith in one’s own problem-solving ability †¢ A belief in the validity of one’s own position and the other’s perspective †¢ The motivation and commitment to work together -62 Factors That Facilitate Successful Integrative Negotiation †¢ Trust †¢ Clear and accurate communication †¢ An understanding of the dynamics of integrative negotiation CHAPTER FOUR Negotiation: Strategy and Planning 4-64 Goals – The Focus That Drives Negotiation Strategy †¢ Determining goals is the first step in the negotiation process †¢ Negotiators should specify goals and objectives clearly †¢ The goals set have direct and indirect effects on the negotiator’s strategy 4-65 The Direct and Indirect Effects of Goals on Strategy †¢ Direct effects – – – – Wishes are not goals Goals are often linked to the other party’s goalsThere are limits to what goals can be Effective goals must be concrete/specific †¢ Indirect effects – Forging an ongoing relationship 4-66 Strategy versus Tactics †¢ Strategy: The overall plan to achieve one’s goals in a negotiation †¢ Tactics: Short-term, adaptive moves designed to enact or pursue broad strategies – Tactics are subordinate to strategy – Tactics are driven by strategy †¢ Planning: The â€Å"action† component of the strategy process; i. e. how will I implement the strategy? 4-67 Approaches to Strategy †¢ Unilateral: One that is made without active involvement of the other party Bilateral: One that considers the impact of the other’s strategy on one’s own 4-68 The Dual Concerns Model Avoidance: Don’t negotiate Competition: I gain, ignore relationship Collaboration: I gain, you gain, enhance relationship Accommodation: I let you win, enhance relationship 4-69 Strategic Options †¢ Per the Dual Concerns Model, choice of strategy is reflected in the answers to two questio ns: – How much concern do I have in achieving my desired outcomes at stake in the negotiation? – How much concern do I have for the current and future quality of the relationship with the other party? 4-70 The Nonengagement Strategy:Avoidance †¢ If one is able to meet one’s needs without negotiating at all, it may make sense to use an avoidance strategy †¢ It simply may not be worth the time and effort to negotiate †¢ The decision to negotiate is closely related to the desirability of available alternatives 4-71 Active-Engagement Strategies †¢ Competition – distributive, win-lose bargaining †¢ Collaboration – integrative, win-win negotiation †¢ Accommodation – involves an imbalance of outcomes (â€Å"I lose, you win†) 4-72 Key Steps to an Ideal Negotiation Process 4-73 Key Steps to an Ideal Negotiation Process †¢ Preparation – What are the goals? How will I work with the other party? †¢ R elationship building – Understanding differences and similarities – Building commitment toward a mutually beneficial set of outcomes †¢ Information gathering – Learn what you need to know about the issues 4-74 Key Steps to an Ideal Negotiation Process †¢ Information using – Assemble your case †¢ Bidding – Each party states their â€Å"opening offer† – Each party engages in â€Å"give and take† †¢ Closing the deal – Build commitment †¢ Implementing the agreement 4-75 Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process †¢ Define the issues †¢ Assemble the issues and define the bargaining ix – The bargaining mix is the combined list of issues †¢ Define your interests – Why you want what you want 4-76 Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process †¢ Know your limits and alternatives †¢ Set your objectives (targets) and opening bids (whe re to start) – Target is the outcome realistically expected – Opening is the best that can be achieved †¢ Assess constituents and the social context of the negotiation 4-77 The Social Context of Negotiation: â€Å"Field† Analysis 4-78 Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process †¢ Analyze the other party – Why do they want what they want? How can I present my case clearly and refute the other party’s arguments? †¢ Present the issues to the other party 4-79 Information Needed to Prepare Effectively for Engaging the Other Party †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Resources, issues, and bargaining mix Interests and needs Walkaway point and alternative(s) Targets and opening bids Constituents, social structure, and authority to make an agreement †¢ Reputation and negotiation style †¢ Likely strategy and tactics 4-80 Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process †¢ Define the protocol t o be followed in the negotiation – – – – – – – What is the agenda? Who will be there?Where will the negotiation occur? What is the time period? What might be done if the negotiation fails? How will we keep track of what is agreed to? How do we know whether we have a good agreement? 4-81 Summary on the Planning Process â€Å"†¦ planning is the most critically important activity in negotiation. † CHAPTER FIVE Perception, Cognition, and Emotion 4-83 Perception, Cognition, and Emotion in Negotiation The basic building blocks of all social encounters are: †¢ Perception †¢ Cognition – Framing – Cognitive biases †¢ Emotion 4-84 Perception Perception is: †¢ The process by which individuals connect to their environment. A â€Å"sense-making† process 4-85 The Process of Perception The process of ascribing meaning to messages and events is strongly influenced by the perceiver’s current state of mind, role, and comprehension of earlier communications People interpret their environment in order to respond appropriately The complexity of environments makes it impossible to process all of the information People develop â€Å"shortcuts† to process information and these â€Å"shortcuts† can create perceptual errors 4-86 Perceptual Distortion †¢ Four major perceptual errors: – Stereotyping – Halo effects – Selective perception – Projection 4-87Stereotyping and Halo Effects †¢ Stereotyping: – Is a very common distortion – Occurs when an individual assigns attributes to another solely on the basis of the other’s membership in a particular social or demographic category †¢ Halo effects: – Are similar to stereotypes – Occur when an individual generalizes about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual 4-88 Selective Perception and Projection â₠¬ ¢ Selective perception: – Perpetuates stereotypes or halo effects – The perceiver singles out information that supports a prior belief but filters out contrary information †¢ Projection: Arises out of a need to protect one’s own self-concept – People assign to others the characteristics or feelings that they possess themselves 4-89 Framing †¢ Frames: – Represent the subjective mechanism through which people evaluate and make sense out of situations – Lead people to pursue or avoid subsequent actions – Focus, shape and organize the world around us – Make sense of complex realities – Define a person, event or process – Impart meaning and significance 4-90 Types of Frames †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Substantive Outcome Aspiration Process Identity Characterization Loss-Gain 4-91 How Frames Work in Negotiation Negotiators can use more than one frame †¢ Mismatches in frames b etween parties are sources of conflict †¢ Parties negotiate differently depending on the frame †¢ Specific frames may be likely to be used with certain types of issues †¢ Particular types of frames may lead to particular types of agreements †¢ Parties are likely to assume a particular frame because of various factors 4-92 Interests, Rights, and Power Parties in conflict use one of three frames: †¢ Interests: people talk about their â€Å"positions† but often what is at stake is their underlying interests †¢ Rights: people may be concerned about who is right† – that is, who has legitimacy, who is correct, and what is fair †¢ Power: people may wish to resolve a conflict on the basis of who is stronger 4-93 The Frame of an Issue Changes as the Negotiation Evolves †¢ Negotiators tend to argue for stock issues or concerns that are raised every time the parties negotiate †¢ Each party attempts to make the best possible case for his or her preferred position or perspective †¢ Frames may define major shifts and transitions in a complex overall negotiation †¢ Multiple agenda items operate to shape issue development 4-94 Some Advice about Problem Framing for Negotiators Frames shape what the parties define as the key issues and how they talk about them †¢ Both parties have frames †¢ Frames are controllable, at least to some degree †¢ Conversations change and transform frames in ways negotiators may not be able to predict but may be able to control †¢ Certain frames are more likely than others to lead to certain types of processes and outcomes 4-95 Cognitive Biases in Negotiation †¢ Negotiators have a tendency to make systematic errors when they process information. These errors, collectively labeled cognitive biases, tend to impede negotiator performance. 4-96 Cognitive Biases †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢Irrational escalation of commitment Mythical fixed-pie be liefs Anchoring and adjustment Issue framing and risk Availability of information †¢ The winner’s curse †¢ Overconfidence †¢ The law of small numbers †¢ Self-serving biases †¢ Endowment effect †¢ Ignoring others’ cognitions †¢ Reactive devaluation 4-97 Irrational Escalation of Commitment and Mythical Fixed-Pie Beliefs †¢ Irrational escalation of commitment – Negotiators maintain commitment to a course of action even when that commitment constitutes irrational behavior †¢ Mythical fixed-pie beliefs – Negotiators assume that all negotiations (not just some) involve a fixed pie 4-98Anchoring and Adjustment and Issue Framing and Risk †¢ Anchoring and adjustment – The effect of the standard (anchor) against which subsequent adjustments (gains or losses) are measured – The anchor might be based on faulty or incomplete information, thus be misleading †¢ Issue framing and risk – Frames ca n lead people to seek, avoid, or be neutral about risk in decision making and negotiation 4-99 Availability of Information and the Winner’s Curse †¢ Availability of information – Operates when information that is presented in vivid or attention-getting ways becomes easy to recall. – Becomes central and critical in evaluating events and ptions †¢ The winner’s curse – The tendency to settle quickly on an item and then subsequently feel discomfort about a win that comes too easily 4-100 Overconfidence and the Law of Small Numbers †¢ Overconfidence – The tendency of negotiators to believe that their ability to be correct or accurate is greater than is actually true †¢ The law of small numbers – The tendency of people to draw conclusions from small sample sizes – The smaller sample, the greater the possibility that past lessons will be erroneously used to infer what will happen in the future 4-101 Self-Serving Bi ases and Endowment Effect †¢ Self-serving biases People often explain another person’s behavior by making attributions, either to the person or to the situation – There is a tendency to: †¢ Overestimate the role of personal or internal factors †¢ Underestimate the role of situational or external factors †¢ Endowment effect – The tendency to overvalue something you own or believe you possess 4-102 Ignoring Others’ Cognitions and Reactive Devaluation †¢ Ignoring others’ cognitions – Negotiators don’t bother to ask about the other party’s perceptions and thoughts – This leaves them to work with incomplete information, and thus produces faulty results †¢ Reactive devaluation The process of devaluing the other party’s concessions simply because the other party made them 4-103 Managing Misperceptions and Cognitive Biases in Negotiation The best advice that negotiators can follow is: †¢ Be aware of the negative aspects of these biases †¢ Discuss them in a structured manner within the team and with counterparts 4-104 Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation †¢ The distinction between mood and emotion is based on three characteristics: – Specificity – Intensity – Duration 4-105 Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation †¢ Negotiations create both positive and negative emotions †¢ Positive emotions generally have positive onsequences for negotiations – They are more likely to lead the parties toward more integrative processes – They create a positive attitude toward the other side – They promote persistence 4-106 Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation †¢ Aspects of the negotiation process can lead to positive emotions – Positive feelings result from fair procedures during negotiation – Positive feelings result from favorable social comparison 4-107 Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation †¢ Negative emotions generally h ave negative consequences for negotiations – They may lead parties to define the situation as competitive or distributive They may undermine a negotiator’s ability to analyze the situation accurately, which adversely affects individual outcomes – They may lead parties to escalate the conflict – They may lead parties to retaliate and may thwart integrative outcomes – Not all negative emotion has the same effect 4-108 Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation †¢ Aspects of the negotiation process can lead to negative emotions – Negative emotions may result from a competitive mind-set – Negative emotions may result from an impasse – Negative emotions may result from the prospect of beginning a negotiation †¢ Effects of positive and negative emotion Positive feelings may generate negative outcomes – Negative feelings may elicit beneficial outcomes †¢ Emotions can be used strategically as negotiation gambits CHAPTER SIX C ommunication 4-110 Communication in Negotiation Communication processes, both verbal and nonverbal, are critical to achieving negotiation goals and to resolving conflicts. 4-111 What is Communicated during Negotiation? †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Offers, counteroffers, and motives Information about alternatives Information about outcomes Social accounts – Explanations of mitigating circumstances – Explanations of exonerating circumstances Reframing explanations †¢ Communication about process 4-112 Communication in Negotiation: Three Key Questions †¢ Are negotiators consistent or adaptive? – Many negotiators prefer sticking with the familiar rather than venturing into improvisation †¢ Does it matter what is said early in the process? – What negotiators do in the first half of the process has a significant impact on their ability to generate integrative solutions with high joint gains †¢ Is more information always better? – Th ere is evidence that having more information does not automatically translate into better outcomes 4-113 How People Communicate n Negotiation †¢ Use of language operates at two levels: – Logical level (proposals, offers) – Pragmatic level (semantics, syntax, style) †¢ Use of nonverbal communication – Making eye contact – Adjusting body position – Nonverbally encouraging or discouraging what the other says 4-114 How People Communicate in Negotiation †¢ Selection of a communication channel – Communication is experienced differently when it occurs through different channels – People negotiate through a variety of communication media – by phone, in writing and increasingly through electronic channels or virtual negotiations Social bandwidth distinguishes one communication channel from another. †¢ the ability of a channel to carry and convey subtle social and relational cues from sender to receiver 4-115 How to I mprove Communication in Negotiation Three main techniques: 1. The use of questions 2. Listening 3. Role reversal 4-116 How to Improve Communication in Negotiation †¢ Use of questions: two basic categories – Manageable questions †¢ cause attention or prepare the other person’s thinking for further questions: – â€Å"May I ask you a question? † †¢ getting information – â€Å"How much will this cost? † †¢ generating thoughts â€Å"Do you have any suggestions for improving this? † 4-117 How to Improve Communication in Negotiation †¢ Use of questions: two basic categories – Unmanageable questions †¢ cause difficulty – â€Å"Where did you get that dumb idea? † †¢ give information – â€Å"Didn’t you know we couldn’t afford this? † †¢ bring the discussion to a false conclusion – â€Å"Don’t you think we have talked about this enough? † 4-118 How to Improve Communication in Negotiation †¢ Listening: three major forms 1. Passive listening: Receiving the message while providing no feedback to the sender 2. Acknowledgment: Receivers nod their heads, maintain eye ontact, or interject responses 3. Active listening: Receivers restate or paraphrase the sender’s message in their own language 4-119 How to Improve Communication in Negotiation †¢ Role reversal – – Negotiators understand the other party’s positions by actively arguing these positions until the other party is convinced that he or she is understood Impact and success of the role-reversal technique †¢ Research suggests that role reversal is a useful tool for improving communication and the accurate understanding and appreciation of the other party’s position 4-120 Special Communication Considerations at the Close of Negotiations Avoiding fatal mistakes – Keeping track of what you expect to happen – Systematically guarding yourself against self-serving expectations – Reviewing the lessons from feedback for similar decisions in the future †¢ Achieving closure – Avoid surrendering important information needlessly – Refrain from making â€Å"dumb remarks† CHAPTER SEVEN Finding and Using Negotiation Power 4-122 Why Is Power Important to Negotiators? Seeking power in negotiation arises from one of two perceptions: 1. The negotiator believes he or she currently has less power than the other party. 2. The negotiator believes he or she needs more power than the other party. -123 A Definition of Power †¢ â€Å"an actor†¦has power in a given situation (situational power) to the degree that he can satisfy the purposes (goals, desires, or wants) that he is attempting to fulfill in that situation† †¢ Two perspectives on power: – Power used to dominate and control the other– â€Å"power over† – Power used to work together with the other–â€Å"power with† 4-124 Major Sources of Power – How People Acquire Power †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Informational sources of power Personal sources of power Power based on position in an organization Relationship-based sources of power Contextual sources of power 4-125 Informational Sources of Power Information is the most common source of power – Derived from the negotiator’s ability to assemble and organize data to support his or her position, arguments, or desired outcomes – A tool to challenge the other party’s position or desired outcomes, or to undermine the effectiveness of the other’s negotiating arguments 4-126 Power Based on Personality and Individual Differences †¢ Personal orientation †¢ Cognitive orientation – Ideologies about power †¢ Motivational orientation – Specific motives to use power †¢ Disposition and skills – Orientation t o cooperation/competition †¢ Moral orientation – Philosophical orientation to power use -127 Power Based on Position in an Organization Two major sources of power in an organization: †¢ Legitimate power which is grounded in the title, duties, and responsibilities of a job description and â€Å"level† within an organization hierarchy †¢ Power based on the control of resources associated with that position 4-128 Power Based on Position in an Organization Two major sources of power in an organization: †¢ Legitimate power is derived from occupying a particular job, office, or position in an organizational hierarchy – Power resides in the title and responsibilities of the job itself and the â€Å"legitimacy† of the office holder Legitimate power is the foundation of our social structure and may be acquired by birth, election or appointment or promotion 4-129 Power Based on Resource Control †¢ People who control resources have the capac ity to give them to someone who will do what they want, and withhold them (or take them away) from someone who doesn’t do what they want. 4-130 Power Based on Resource Control †¢ Some of the most important resources: – – – – – – – Money Supplies Human capital Time Equipment Critical services Interpersonal support 4-131 Power Based on Relationships †¢ Goal interdependence – How parties view their goals †¢ Referent power Based on an appeal to common experiences, common past, common fate, or membership in the same groups. †¢ Networks – Power is derived from whatever flows through that particular location in the structure (usually information and resources) 4-132 An Organization Hierarchy 4-133 An Organizational Network Isolated Dyad Star Gatekeeper Liaison External Environment Linking Pin Isolate 4-134 Power Based on Relationships †¢ Key aspects of networks: – Tie strength †¢ An i ndication of the strength or quality of relationships with others – Tie content †¢ The resource that passes along the tie with the other person – Network structure The overall set of relationships within a social system 4-135 Power Based on Relationships Aspects of network structure that determine power include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Centrality Criticality and relevance Flexibility Visibility Membership in a coalition 4-136 Contextual Sources of Power Power is based in the context, situation or environment in which negotiations take place. †¢ BATNAs – An alternative deal that a negotiator might pursue if she or he does not come to agreement with the current other party †¢ Culture – Often contains implicit â€Å"rules† about use of power †¢ Agents, constituencies and external audiences All these parties can become actively involved in pressuring others 4-137 Dealing with Others Who Have More Power †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Never do an all-or-nothing deal Make the other party smaller Make yourself bigger Build momentum through doing deals in sequence Use the power of competition to leverage power Constrain yourself Good information is always a source of power Ask many questions to gain more information Do what you can to manage the process CHAPTER EIGHT Ethics in Negotiation 4-139 What Do We Mean by Ethics and Why Do They Matter in Negotiation? Ethics: †¢ Are broadly applied social standards for what is right r wrong in a particular situation, or a process for setting those standards †¢ Grow out of particular philosophies which – Define the nature of the world in which we live – Prescribe rules for living together 4-140 Resolving Moral Problems 4-141 Questions of Ethical Conduct that Arise in Negotiation †¢ Using ethically ambiguous tactics: It’s (mostly) all about the truth †¢ Identifying ethically ambig uous tactics and attitudes toward their use – What ethically ambiguous tactics are there? – Is it all right to use ethically ambiguous tactics? 4-142 Questions of Ethical Conduct that Arise in Negotiation †¢ Deception by omission versus commission